Maisa Mansour

In the past ten years natural extracts have been used as important potential applications to prevent mold growth on in-service wood. The growth of fungal hyphae of five common mold fungi (Alternaria alternata, Fusarium subglutinans, Chaetomium globosum, Aspergillus niger, and Trichoderma viride) on wood surface of Pinus sylvestris, Pinus rigida and Fagus sylvatica treated with the essential oil (EO) of P. rigida (wood) and Eucalyptus camaldulensis (leaves) was visually estimated. EOs were applied by vapor method and the mold growth inhibition was measured. The chemical constituents of the EOs was analyzed by GC/MS, which referred to the presence of α-terpineol (34.49%), borneol (17.57%), and fenchyl alcohol (14.20%) as the major components in P. rigida wood oil, and eucalyptol (60.32%), α-pinene (13.65%), and γ-terpinene (8.77%) in E. camaldulensis leaves. Complete inhibition against the growth of A. alternata, F. subglutinans, C. globosum, and A. niger except of T. viride by applying P. rigida wood EO at 5000 ppm and complete growth with all the studied fungi except of C. globosum at 156.25 ppm was found. Good inhibitions against C. globosum at 5000 ppm and 156.25 ppm and no inhibition against A. niger and T. viride and little inhibition against F. subglutinans at high concentration was found by the application of EO from E. camaldulensis leaves. These findings support the potential use of the EOs for wood protection against mold infestation for surface-treatment or fumigation of wood products

Natural extracts have become of high interest in the past ten years for their inhibiting the growth of
molds over wood and wood products surfaces in service or during the storage of building materials. In
the present study, the antifungal effects of three natural extracts applied to three woods against five
common molds were assessed. The growth of fungal hyphae of Alternaria alternata, Fusarium subglutinans,
Chaetomium globosum, Aspergillus niger, and Trichoderma viride on the surfaces of Pinus sylvestris,
Pinus rigida and Fagus sylvatica woods treated with extracts of Pinus rigida (heartwood),
Eucalyptus camaldulensis (leaves) and Costus speciosus (rhizomes) was visually estimated. GC/MS and
FTIR analyses were used to identify the chemical constituents and the functional groups of extracts. aterpineol
(24.91%), borneol (10.95%), terpin hydrate (9.60%), D-fenchyl alcohol (5.99%), and limonene
glycol (5.05%), which are the main constituents of P. rigida heartwood methanol extract. The main
chemical compounds of methanol extract from Eucalyptus camaldulensis leaves were spathulenol
(18.89%), cryptone (5.79%), 4,6,6-trimethyl-2-(3-methylbuta-1,3-dienyl)-3-oxatricyclo[5.1.0.0(2,4)]octane
(5.79%), (3,3-dimethylcyclohexylidene)-(E)-acetaldehyde (5.57%), and ascaridole (4.32%). The main
constituents identified in the distilled water extract from Costus speciosus rhizomes were meso-erythritol
(12.21%), methyl-2-methyl-1,3-oxothiolan-2-yl-ketone (11.61%), (all-Z)-5,8,11,14,17-eicosapentaenoic
acid-methyl ester (9.74%), diosgenin (5.07%), 2-ethyl-3-hydroxy-4H-pyran-4-one (4.43%), 30
,40
,7-
trimethylquercetin (3.17%), and digitoxin (2.77%). Wood specimens treated at the level of 2% concentration
of P. rigida heartwood extract observed good inhibition to the mold growth under laboratory
conditions. These findings support the potential use of natural extracts for natural wood protection
against mold infestation for surface treatment of wood. The results indicate that wood extracts may be
useful for reducing the incidence of mold on wood products, but none of the materials evaluated
completely inhibited the test fungi. These extracts may provide a useful value-added application for byproducts
of lumber production from these species.

The main goal of this work was to investigate the biological fungicidal activity of some commercial essential oils of tea tree, lavender and thyme, which were to be applied as alternative preservatives for ancient manuscripts. To achieve our goal, model samples of cellulosic paper were made to mimic the original manuscript, which was a Coptic manuscript known as Pascha (the sacred week), dated 1812. Twenty-three microorganism strains were isolated representing twelve fungal taxa and one bacterial taxa which were identified in all collected and analyzed in samples, which included Trichoderma viride, Penicillium roqueforti, Eurotium chevalieri, Aspergillus flavus and Bacillus subtilis. A scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used to investigate the growth of the associated microorganisms and their effect on the sample paper structure. Different concentrations of the aforementioned essential oils were applied on the mimic samples, which were then subjected to accelerated ageing corresponding to 25 or 50 years of a natural one. To characterize the applied oils on the samples, we made records by using FTIR-ATR, color measurements according to CIELAB system, and analyzed the mechanical properties of the tested samples. The results revealed that the samples treated with either tea tree oil or lavender oil, had ΔE values that decreased as the oil concentration increased. However, when samples were treated with thyme oil the reverse was obtained. For the treated samples exposed to 25 years of light ageing, we noticed that the higher obtained tensile strength and % elongation of treated samples followed the ranking order: thyme > lavender > tea tree oils. For the treated samples that were exposed to 50 years of natural light ageing, we observed that almost all tensile strength and elongation values of the treated samples were higher than that of the untreated ones. Moreover, we noticed that the inhibition of growth of the microorganisms was obtained at a low concentration of tea tree oil (0.25% v/v). This treatment was esthetically acceptable for archaeological objects, because it was colorless, transparent and safe. Based on the results we obtained, the optimized essential oil, which is the oil with an appropriate concentration, was selected to be added to the cellulosic pulp used for the leaf casting. Moreover, the same optimized essential oil was applied on the paper samples to be used as separators between the ancient manuscript pages. After dismantling, cleaning, leaf casting and rebinding of the damaged parts, the manuscript is then preserved.

In the present study, the microbial deterioration of sandstone from the Osirion's Sarcophagus Chamber as
affected by rising ground water level was investigated by means of SEM micrograph of fungal hyphae, X-ray
diffraction (XRD), and Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). The following Fungi; Cladosporium
cladosporioides, Aspergillus terreus, Curvularia lunata, and Acremonium falciforme were identified on the
deteriorated stone surfaces and these findings were tested by SEM investigations. The hyphae penetration of
the identified microfungi caused mechanical exfoliation of building stone material as well as changing in
color.

Stained glasses are widely used in windows of the buildings and exposed for many different damage factors that affect the composition and properties such as humidity, temperature, air pollution and microorganisms and other factors of the damage. The present study investigated the biodeterioration states of the surface of six colored glasses- which used in stained glass- (black dark purple, opaque white, dark green, black dark, yellow semitransparent and red oxide cuprite) by the fungus Stemphylium botryosum after incubation for 6 months. Scanning electron microscopy attached with energy dispersive spectrometry (ESM-EDAX) was used to investigate the growth of S. botryosum on the glass sample composition before and after infection. Also the chromatic alternation was measured according to CIELAB system. Results showed that S. botryosum has developed clear changes on all six colored glasses surface as an alternation in element oxides, and the formation of hyphal. The result of glass decay is a sharp decrease of the network composition (SiO2) as well as increase in CO2. We have shown that S. botryosum can colonize various types of glasses where the chemical elements necessary to its development become available. Dark green and black dark purple were the most affected colored glasses by S. botryosum with SiO2 was decreased from 64.13% to15.41% and 62.97% to 30.52%, respectively. The results revealed that, samples treated with S. botryosum have been decreased the oxide Cu in the Dark green from 0.15% to 0.11%and Mn in black dark purple from 0.16 %to 0.05. Therefore, S. botryosum was able to biodeteriorate the colored glasses with distinct compositions. (Regarding the biodeterioration degree, there were differences between all the colored glasses in terms of alternation in element oxides compositions).

The natural durability of wood to mold fungi was tested under laboratory conditions with locally sourced Citharexylum spinosum and Morus alba woods. The mold fungi were Penicillium selerotigenum, Paecilomyces variotii, and Aspergillus niger. Changes in surface elemental composition were evaluated with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) and the biodeterioration of wood surfaces by scanning electron microscope (SEM). The C peak element of C. spinosum wood was affected significantly (P = 0.0004) and decreased from 49.91% in the control specimens to 47%, 40.1%, and 40% with P. selerotigenum, A. niger, and P. variotii, respectively. Also, the C peak element of M. alba heartwood significantly decreased (P < 0.0001) from 51.33% in the control specimens to 41.49%, 45.66%, and 43.66% in wood inoculated with A. niger, P. variotii, and P. selerotigenum, respectively. The elements Al and Cu were observed in high percentages with M. alba heartwood inoculated by P. variotii. The methanol extract from M. alba heartwood showed good inhibition against the growth of A. niger at a concentration of 32 μg/mL, and the methanol extract from C. spinosum wood showed remarkable inhibition against the growth of P. variotii at a concentration of 8 μg/mL. The results of this study clearly showed the changes that occur in wood samples as a result of fungal infestation.

In the present study, papers manufactured from cotton cellulose were used. White paper (without inks), paper with Cinnabar ink (red ink color, HgS), and paper with Iron Gall Ink color (black) were used for the colonization by Trichoderma viride, Penicillium roqueforti, Eurotium chevalievi, and Aspergillus flavus. The identification of cellulose as well as the inks used and the binder material (Arabic gum) was achieved by means of FTIR spectra. The degradation in cellulosic fiber was done by measuring the hyphal growth of the studied fungi using the environmental scan electron microscope (ESEM). Color changes of the inoculated papers with the each of the four fungi tested was determined on the surface of the studied cellulosic fiber treated with tea tree oil (0.25%) and thyme oil (0.5%). The values of color changes (ΔE) refer to the fungal growth. The smallest fungal growth (A. flavus) was found on the white and red papers treated with tea tree oil, with a ΔE value of 1.95, while the highest value (ΔE 39.17) occurred by T. viride on red paper treated with thyme oil. The greater value of ΔE between the control and inoculated samples of the same species in the same type of paper presented the highest fungal growth on the paper. From the ESEM examination as well as the chromatic alternation of the inoculated papers with four fungi, T. viride is the most deteriorative fungus for the tested papers and A. flavus is lowest one.

Limestone artifacts are susceptible to be attacked by bacteria and fungi. This study aims to explore the utilization of titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles for protecting limestone artifacts against fungal attack. Isolate microorganisms, primarily fungi, were identified by scanning electron microscope (SEM) and light microscope (LM). Six different fungal species were detected, Fusarium solani, Stemphylium sp., Aspergillus niger, A. flavus, A. versicolor and Curvularia geniculata along with Actinomyces spp. All of these microorganisms caused deterioration of the elemental contents of the used stone. Actinomyces spp. and fungi were able to consume calcium carbonate as a carbon source, reducing the content of all the detected elements, including (e.g. silica, alumina and magnesia etc.) compared to the control sample. Coating of the surface of limestone slabs with a consolidated mixture formed of 2% TiO2 nanoparticles dissolved in B-72 at a concentration of 5% and its effects on A. niger colonization were assessed. Coating of the slab surfaces with TiO2 nanoparticles resulted in good consolidation, with these nanoparticles displaying excellent antifungal activity; suggesting that coating of limestone artifacts with TiO2 nanoparticles can protect them against fungal activity
.